Risk of Disordered Eating, Exercise Dependence, Body Dissatisfaction, and Fueling Habits in Masters Trail Runners Original Research
Main Article Content
Keywords
masters athlete , nutrition , running
Abstract
Introduction: Masters-level trail runners comprise a large percentage of trail and ultramarathon racers. Endurance training may increase the risk of developing disordered eating (DE) patterns and exercise dependence (EXD). This study investigated the risk of DE and EXD in masters-level runners, and compared the risk of EXD, body dissatisfaction, injuries, and fueling habits in runners at risk vs. not at risk for DE.
Methods: In this cross-sectional study design, male (n = 457) and female (n = 564) masters trail runners (41-65 years of age) completed a Qualtrics survey comprising the Disordered Eating Screen for Athletes (DESA-6), Exercise Dependence Scale (EDS-21), and questions pertaining to fueling strategies, dietary preferences, and body image satisfaction.
Results: 46% of females and 32% of males were at risk for DE based on the DESA-6. 80% of female and 79% of male runners were classified as symptomatic for EXD. For the entire population, there was a significant association between DE risk (88.2%) and symptomatic EXD (χ21 = 32.5, p < 0.001). The majority of participants (71.4%) reported being dissatisfied with their weight.
Conclusion: This study demonstrated a high prevalence of DE, EXD, and body dissatisfaction in masters trail runners.
References
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21. Jörres M, Gunga HC, Steinach M. Physiological Changes, Activity, and Stress During a 100-km–24-h Walking-March. Front Physiol. 2021;12. doi:10.3389/fphys.2021.640710
22. Arribalzaga S, Viribay A, Calleja-González J, Fernández-Lázaro D, Castañeda-Babarro A, Mielgo-Ayuso J. Relationship of Carbohydrate Intake during a Single-Stage One-Day Ultra-Trail Race with Fatigue Outcomes and Gastrointestinal Problems: A Systematic Review. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2021;18(11):5737. doi:10.3390/ijerph18115737
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24. Kennedy SF, Kovan J, Werner E, Mancine R, Gusfa D, Kleiman H. Initial Validation of a Screening Tool for Disordered Eating in Adolescent Athletes. J Eat Disord. 2021;9(1):21. doi:10.1186/s40337-020-00364-7
25. Downs D, Hausenblas H, Nigg C. Factorial Validity and Psychometric Examination of the Exercise Dependence Scale-Revised. Meas. Phys. Educ. Exerc. 2009;8:183-201. doi:10.1207/s15327841mpee0804_1
26. Hausenblas HA, Symons Downs D. Exercise Dependence: A Systematic Review. Psychol Sport Exerc. 2002;3(2):89-123. doi:10.1016/S1469-0292(00)00015-7
27. Hausenblas HA, Fallon EA. Relationship Among Body Image, Exercise Behavior, and Exercise Dependence Symptoms. Int J Eat Disord. 2002;32(2):179-185. doi:10.1002/eat.10071
28. Orhan S, Yücel AS, Sadeq BJ, Orhan E. Investigation of the Exercise Dependence of Athletes Doing Kickboxing, Taekwondo, and Muay Thai. Sports. 2019;7(2):52. doi:10.3390/sports7020052
29. Fahrenholtz IL, Melin AK, Wasserfurth P, et al. Risk of Low Energy Availability, Disordered Eating, Exercise Addiction, and Food Intolerances in Female Endurance Athletes. Front Sports Act Living. 2022;4. Accessed October 26, 2023. doi:10.3389/fspor.2022.869594
30. Heikura IA, Uusitalo ALT, Stellingwerff T, Bergland D, Mero AA, Burke LM. Low Energy Availability Is Difficult to Assess but Outcomes Have Large Impact on Bone Injury Rates in Elite Distance Athletes. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2018;28(4):403-411. doi:10.1123/ijsnem.2017-0313
31. Thomas DT, Erdman KA, Burke LM. Position of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics, Dietitians of Canada, and the American College of Sports Medicine: Nutrition and Athletic Performance. J Acad Nutr Diet. 2016;116(3):501-528. doi:10.1016/j.jand.2015.12.006
32. Kluyver T, Ragan-Kelley B, Pérez F, et al. Jupyter Notebooks – a publishing format for reproducible computational workflows. In: Loizides F, Scmidt B, eds. IOS Press; 2016:87-90. doi:10.3233/978-1-61499-649-1-87
33. Sharps FRJ, Wilson LJ, Graham CAM, Curtis C. Prevalence of Disordered Eating, Eating Disorders and Risk of Low Energy Availability in Professional, Competitive and Recreational Female Athletes based in the United Kingdom. Eur J Sport Sci. 2022;22(9):1445-1451. doi:10.1080/17461391.2021.1943712
34. Zeulner B, Ziemainz H, Beyer C, Hammon M, Janka R. Disordered Eating and Exercise Dependence in Endurance Athletes. Adv in Phys Educ. 2016;6(2):76-87. doi:10.4236/ape.2016.62009
35. Kantanista A, Glapa A, Banio A, et al. Body Image of Highly Trained Female Athletes Engaged in Different Types of Sport. Gorgey AS, ed. Biomed Res. Int. 2018;6835751. doi:10.1155/2018/6835751
36. Anderson LM, Reilly EE, Gorrell S, Anderson DA. Running to Win or to be Thin? An Evaluation of Body Dissatisfaction and Eating Disorder Symptoms Among Adult Runners. Body Image. 2016;17:43-47. doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2016.02.003
37. Thompson KA, Bardone-Cone AM. Evaluating Attitudes About Aging and Body Comparison as Moderators of the Relationship Between Menopausal Status and Disordered Eating and Body Image Concerns Among Middle-Aged Women. Maturitas. 2019;124:25-31. doi:10.1016/j.maturitas.2019.03.014
38. Godoy-Izquierdo D, Ramírez MJ, Díaz I, López-Mora C. A Systematic Review on Exercise Addiction and the Disordered Eating-Eating Disorders Continuum in the Competitive Sport Context. Int J Ment Health Addiction. 2023;21(1):529-561. doi:10.1007/s11469-021-00610-2
39. Heikura IA, Uusitalo ALT, Stellingwerff T, Bergland D, Mero AA, Burke LM. Low Energy Availability Is Difficult to Assess but Outcomes Have Large Impact on Bone Injury Rates in Elite Distance Athletes. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2018;28(4):403-411. doi:10.1123/ijsnem.2017-0313
40. Lichtenstein MB, Nielsen RO, Gudex C, Hinze CJ, Jørgensen U. Exercise Addiction is Associated with Emotional Distress in Injured and Non-Injured Regular Exercisers. Addict. Behav. Rep. 2018;8:33-39. doi:10.1016/j.abrep.2018.06.001
41. Pfeiffer B, Stellingwerff T, Hodgson AB, et al. Nutritional Intake and Gastrointestinal Problems During Competitive Endurance Events. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2012;44(2):344-351. doi:10.1249/MSS.0b013e31822dc809
42. Mountjoy M, Ackerman KE, Bailey DM, et al. 2023 International Olympic Committee’s (IOC) consensus statement on Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport (REDs). Br J Sports Med. 2023;57(17):1073-1097. doi:10.1136/bjsports-2023-106994
43. Nikolaidis PT, Knechtle B. Validity of Recreational Marathon Runners’ Self-Reported Anthropometric Data. Percept Mot Skills. 2020;127(6):1068-1078. doi:10.1177/0031512520930159
2. Tayrose GA, Beutel BG, Cardone DA, Sherman OH. The Masters Athlete. Sports Health. 2015;7(3):270-276. doi:10.1177/1941738114548999
3. Lepers R, Stapley PJ. Master Athletes Are Extending the Limits of Human Endurance. Front Physiol. 2016;7. doi:10.3389/fphys.2016.00613
4. Hoffman MD, Ong JC, Wang G. Historical Analysis of Participation in 161 km Ultramarathons in North America. Int J Hist Sport. 2010;27(11):1877-1891. doi:10.1080/09523367.2010.494385
5. Knechtle B, Rüst CA, Rosemann T, Lepers R. Age-Related Changes in 100-km Ultra-Marathon Running Performance. Age (Dordr). 2012;34(4):1033-1045. doi:10.1007/s11357-011-9290-9
6. Colangelo J, Smith A, Buadze A, Keay N, Liebrenz M. Mental Health Disorders in Ultra Endurance Athletes per ICD-11 Classifications: A Review of an Overlooked Community in Sports Psychiatry. Sports. 2023;11(3):52. doi:10.3390/sports11030052
7. Henninger K, Pritchett K, Brooke N, Dambacher L. Low Energy Availability, Disordered Eating, Exercise Dependence and Fueling Strategies in Trail Runners. Int J Exerc Sci. 2024;16(2):1471-1486.
8. Wells KR, Jeacocke NA, Appaneal R, et al. The Australian Institute of Sport (AIS) and National Eating Disorders Collaboration (NEDC) Position Statement on Disordered Eating in High Performance Sport. Br J Sports Med. 2020;54(21):1247-1258. doi:10.1136/bjsports-2019-101813
9. Hausenblas HA, Downs DS. How Much is Too Much? The Development and Validation of the Exercise Dependence Scale. Psychol & Health. 2002;17(4):387-404. doi:10.1080/0887044022000004894
10. Cook B, Hausenblas H, Freimuth M. Exercise Addiction and Compulsive Exercising: Relationship to Eating Disorders, Substance Use Disorders, and Addictive Disorders. In: Brewerton TD, Baker Dennis A, eds. Eating Disorders, Addictions and Substance Use Disorders: Research, Clinical and Treatment Perspectives. Springer; 2014:127-144. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-45378-6_7
11. Kuikman MA, Mountjoy M, Burr JF. Examining the Relationship Between Exercise dependence, Disordered Eating, and Low Energy Availability. Nutrients. 2021;13(8):2601. doi:10.3390/nu13082601
12. Dervish RA, Wilson LJ, Curtis C. Investigating the Prevalence of Low Energy Availability, Disordered Eating and Eating Disorders in Competitive and Recreational Female Endurance Runners. Eur J Sports Sci. 2023;23(5):869-876. doi:10.1080/17461391.2022.2079423
13. Mangweth-Matzek B, Hoek HW, Rupp CI, Kemmler G, Pope HG, Kinzl J. The Menopausal Transition--A Possible Window of Vulnerability for Eating Pathology. Int J Eat Disord. 2013;46(6):609-616. doi:10.1002/eat.22157
14. Khalil J, Boutros S, Kheir N, et al. Eating Disorders and Their Relationship with Menopausal Phases Among a Sample of Middle-Aged Lebanese Women. BMC Womens Health. 2022;22(1):153. doi:10.1186/s12905-022-01738-6
15. Samuels KL, Maine MM, Tantillo M. Disordered Eating, Eating Disorders, and Body Image in Midlife and Older Women. Curr Psychiatry Rep. 2019;21(8):70. doi:10.1007/s11920-019-1057-5
16. Séjourné N, Got F, Solans C, Raynal P. Body Image, Satisfaction with Sexual Life, Self-Esteem, and Anxiodepressive Symptoms: A Comparative Study Between Premenopausal, Perimenopausal, and Postmenopausal Women. J Women Aging. 2019;31(1):18-29. doi:10.1080/08952841.2018.1510247
17. Nazarpour S, Simbar M, Majd HA, Torkamani ZJ, Andarvar KD, Rahnemaei F. The Relationship Between Postmenopausal Women’s Body Image and the Severity of Menopausal Symptoms. BMC Public Health. 2021;21(1):1599. doi:10.1186/s12889-021-11643-6
18. Baceviciene M, Jankauskiene R, Rutkauskaite R. The Comparison of Disordered Eating, Body Image, Sociocultural and Coach-Related Pressures in Athletes across Age Groups and Groups of Different Weight Sensitivity in Sports. Nutrients. 2023;15(12):2724. doi:10.3390/nu15122724
19. Karrer Y, Halioua R, Mötteli S, et al. Disordered Eating and Eating Disorders in Male Elite Athletes: A Scoping Review. BMJ Open Sport Exerc. Med. 2020;6(1):e000801. doi:10.1136/bmjsem-2020-000801
20. Patelia S, Stone RC, El-Bakri R, Adli M, Baker J. Masters or Pawns? Examining Injury and Chronic Disease in Male Masters Athletes and Chess Players Compared to Population Norms from the Canadian Community Health Survey. Eur Rev Aging Phys Act. 2018;15(1):15. doi:10.1186/s11556-018-0204-z
21. Jörres M, Gunga HC, Steinach M. Physiological Changes, Activity, and Stress During a 100-km–24-h Walking-March. Front Physiol. 2021;12. doi:10.3389/fphys.2021.640710
22. Arribalzaga S, Viribay A, Calleja-González J, Fernández-Lázaro D, Castañeda-Babarro A, Mielgo-Ayuso J. Relationship of Carbohydrate Intake during a Single-Stage One-Day Ultra-Trail Race with Fatigue Outcomes and Gastrointestinal Problems: A Systematic Review. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2021;18(11):5737. doi:10.3390/ijerph18115737
23. Méndez-Alonso D, Prieto-Saborit JA, Bahamonde JR, Jiménez-Arberás E. Influence of Psychological Factors on the Success of the Ultra-Trail Runner. Int. J. Environ. Res. 2021;18(5):2704. doi:10.3390/ijerph18052704
24. Kennedy SF, Kovan J, Werner E, Mancine R, Gusfa D, Kleiman H. Initial Validation of a Screening Tool for Disordered Eating in Adolescent Athletes. J Eat Disord. 2021;9(1):21. doi:10.1186/s40337-020-00364-7
25. Downs D, Hausenblas H, Nigg C. Factorial Validity and Psychometric Examination of the Exercise Dependence Scale-Revised. Meas. Phys. Educ. Exerc. 2009;8:183-201. doi:10.1207/s15327841mpee0804_1
26. Hausenblas HA, Symons Downs D. Exercise Dependence: A Systematic Review. Psychol Sport Exerc. 2002;3(2):89-123. doi:10.1016/S1469-0292(00)00015-7
27. Hausenblas HA, Fallon EA. Relationship Among Body Image, Exercise Behavior, and Exercise Dependence Symptoms. Int J Eat Disord. 2002;32(2):179-185. doi:10.1002/eat.10071
28. Orhan S, Yücel AS, Sadeq BJ, Orhan E. Investigation of the Exercise Dependence of Athletes Doing Kickboxing, Taekwondo, and Muay Thai. Sports. 2019;7(2):52. doi:10.3390/sports7020052
29. Fahrenholtz IL, Melin AK, Wasserfurth P, et al. Risk of Low Energy Availability, Disordered Eating, Exercise Addiction, and Food Intolerances in Female Endurance Athletes. Front Sports Act Living. 2022;4. Accessed October 26, 2023. doi:10.3389/fspor.2022.869594
30. Heikura IA, Uusitalo ALT, Stellingwerff T, Bergland D, Mero AA, Burke LM. Low Energy Availability Is Difficult to Assess but Outcomes Have Large Impact on Bone Injury Rates in Elite Distance Athletes. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2018;28(4):403-411. doi:10.1123/ijsnem.2017-0313
31. Thomas DT, Erdman KA, Burke LM. Position of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics, Dietitians of Canada, and the American College of Sports Medicine: Nutrition and Athletic Performance. J Acad Nutr Diet. 2016;116(3):501-528. doi:10.1016/j.jand.2015.12.006
32. Kluyver T, Ragan-Kelley B, Pérez F, et al. Jupyter Notebooks – a publishing format for reproducible computational workflows. In: Loizides F, Scmidt B, eds. IOS Press; 2016:87-90. doi:10.3233/978-1-61499-649-1-87
33. Sharps FRJ, Wilson LJ, Graham CAM, Curtis C. Prevalence of Disordered Eating, Eating Disorders and Risk of Low Energy Availability in Professional, Competitive and Recreational Female Athletes based in the United Kingdom. Eur J Sport Sci. 2022;22(9):1445-1451. doi:10.1080/17461391.2021.1943712
34. Zeulner B, Ziemainz H, Beyer C, Hammon M, Janka R. Disordered Eating and Exercise Dependence in Endurance Athletes. Adv in Phys Educ. 2016;6(2):76-87. doi:10.4236/ape.2016.62009
35. Kantanista A, Glapa A, Banio A, et al. Body Image of Highly Trained Female Athletes Engaged in Different Types of Sport. Gorgey AS, ed. Biomed Res. Int. 2018;6835751. doi:10.1155/2018/6835751
36. Anderson LM, Reilly EE, Gorrell S, Anderson DA. Running to Win or to be Thin? An Evaluation of Body Dissatisfaction and Eating Disorder Symptoms Among Adult Runners. Body Image. 2016;17:43-47. doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2016.02.003
37. Thompson KA, Bardone-Cone AM. Evaluating Attitudes About Aging and Body Comparison as Moderators of the Relationship Between Menopausal Status and Disordered Eating and Body Image Concerns Among Middle-Aged Women. Maturitas. 2019;124:25-31. doi:10.1016/j.maturitas.2019.03.014
38. Godoy-Izquierdo D, Ramírez MJ, Díaz I, López-Mora C. A Systematic Review on Exercise Addiction and the Disordered Eating-Eating Disorders Continuum in the Competitive Sport Context. Int J Ment Health Addiction. 2023;21(1):529-561. doi:10.1007/s11469-021-00610-2
39. Heikura IA, Uusitalo ALT, Stellingwerff T, Bergland D, Mero AA, Burke LM. Low Energy Availability Is Difficult to Assess but Outcomes Have Large Impact on Bone Injury Rates in Elite Distance Athletes. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2018;28(4):403-411. doi:10.1123/ijsnem.2017-0313
40. Lichtenstein MB, Nielsen RO, Gudex C, Hinze CJ, Jørgensen U. Exercise Addiction is Associated with Emotional Distress in Injured and Non-Injured Regular Exercisers. Addict. Behav. Rep. 2018;8:33-39. doi:10.1016/j.abrep.2018.06.001
41. Pfeiffer B, Stellingwerff T, Hodgson AB, et al. Nutritional Intake and Gastrointestinal Problems During Competitive Endurance Events. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2012;44(2):344-351. doi:10.1249/MSS.0b013e31822dc809
42. Mountjoy M, Ackerman KE, Bailey DM, et al. 2023 International Olympic Committee’s (IOC) consensus statement on Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport (REDs). Br J Sports Med. 2023;57(17):1073-1097. doi:10.1136/bjsports-2023-106994
43. Nikolaidis PT, Knechtle B. Validity of Recreational Marathon Runners’ Self-Reported Anthropometric Data. Percept Mot Skills. 2020;127(6):1068-1078. doi:10.1177/0031512520930159
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Apr 16, 2024
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Risk of Disordered Eating, Exercise Dependence, Body Dissatisfaction, and Fueling Habits in Masters Trail Runners: Original Research. (2024). Research in Health and Medicine, 4(1). https://doi.org/10.53520/rdhs2024.104111
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