An Examination of the Impact of COVID-19 on Student Emotional Well-Being Original Research
Main Article Content
Keywords
Psychological Distress , Resilience, Coronavirus 2019
Abstract
Introduction: Emotional well-being (EWB) among university students has received deserved attention in the United States (US). The purpose of this study was to explore the impact of COVID-19 on university student emotional well-being by examining 1) self-reported differences in symptoms of psychological distress (PD) before and after COVID-19, and 2) differences in student PD and resiliency based on demographic variables. It was hypothesized that differences in PD following the onset of COVID-19 and that differences in PD and resiliency based on demographic variables would be found.
Methods: Five-hundred-and-eighty-three eligible students from a regionally accredited, southern university in the US voluntarily participated in this cross-sectional, online, retrospective study during spring 2021. Participants completed an electronic survey consisting of demographic questions and two survey instruments, the Trauma Symptom Checklist- 40 and Brief Resilience Scale. Descriptive and inferential analyses (i.e. ANOVAs) were conducted.
Results: Levels of PD were significantly greater (p < .001) for all students following the onset of COVID-19 (m = 39) in comparison to pre COVID-19 (m = 22). Main effects based on pre/post condition demonstrated post levels of PD were higher for sex, race, income, and education status in comparison to pre COVID-19 PD levels (p < .001). Main effects for between group differences were indicated for PD among all demographic variables, sex (p < .001), race (p = .035), income (p < .001), and education status (p < .001). Main effects for group differences were found for resilience, sex (p < .001), race (p = .022), income (p < .001), and education status (p < .001). Students identifying as “other sex”, European American, low income and undergraduate experienced significantly greater PD and lower levels of resilience than their counterparts.
Conclusions: Student EWB was impacted by the onset of COVID-19. PD increased as a result of COVID-19. Differences in PD and resilience on the basis of demographic variables provides evidence of the need to develop tailored programs/policies in order to support the EWB of all university students.
References
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23. Ickes MJ, Brown J, Reeves B, Zephyr PMD. Differences between Undergraduate and Graduate Students in Stress and Coping Strategies. Californian Journal of Health Promotion. 2015;13(1):13-25. doi:10.32398/cjhp.v13i1.1810
24. Chirikov I, Soria KM, Horgos B, Jones-White D. Undergraduate and Graduate Students’ Mental Health During the COVID-19 Pandemic. Published online August 17, 2020. Accessed February 23, 2023. https://escholarship.org/uc/item/80k5d5hw
25. Laor N, Wolmer L, Alon M, Siev J, Samuel E, Toren P. Risk and Protective Factors Mediating Psychological Symptoms and Ideological Commitment of Adolescents Facing Continuous Terrorism - Google Search. Accessed February 23, 2023. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16614550/
26. Hu J, Ye B, Yıldırım M, Yang Q. Perceived stress and life satisfaction during COVID-19 pandemic: the mediating role of social adaptation and the moderating role of emotional resilience. Psychology Health and Medicine. 2023;28:124-130. doi:10.1080/13548506.2022.2038385
27. Briere J, Runtz M. Trauma Symptom Checklist - 40 (TSC-40).; 1989.
28. Elliott DM, Briere J. Sexual abuse trauma among professional women: Validating the Trauma Symptom Checklist-40 (TSC-40). Child Abuse & Neglect. 1992;16(3):391-398. doi:10.1016/0145-2134(92)90048-V
29. Briere J. Psychometric review of the Trauma Symptom Checklist-40. In: Measurement of Stress, Trauma, and Adaptation. B.H. Stamm (Ed). Sidran Press; 1996.
30. Rizeq J, Flora D, McCann D. Construct Validation of the Trauma Symptom Checklist–40 Total and Subscale Scores. Assessment. 2018;27:107319111879104. doi:10.1177/1073191118791042
31. Smith BW, Dalen J, Wiggins K, Tooley E, Christopher P, Bernard J. The brief resilience scale: assessing the ability to bounce back. Int J Behav Med. 2008;15(3):194-200. doi:10.1080/10705500802222972
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37. Sipaviciene S. The Relationships between Psychological Well-Being, Emotions and Coping in COVID-19 Environment: The Gender Aspect for Postgraduate Students. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2022;19(16):10132. doi:10.3390/ijerph191610132
38. Cassidy S. Resilience Building in Students: The Role of Academic Self-Efficacy. Frontiers in Psychology. 2015;6. Accessed February 23, 2023. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01781
39. Wang L, Tao H, Bowers BJ, Brown R, Zhang Y. Influence of Social Support and Self-Efficacy on Resilience of Early Career Registered Nurses. West J Nurs Res. 2018;40(5):648-664. doi:10.1177/0193945916685712
40. Chang L, Feldman C. Female Students More Likely To Suffer From Stress, Depression. The Observer. Published June 20, 2011. Accessed May 10, 2022. https://fordhamobserver.com/2780/recent/news/female-students-more-likely-to-suffer-from-stress-depression/
41. Kogan M, Laursen SL. Assessing Long-Term Effects of Inquiry-Based Learning: A Case Study from College Mathematics. Innov High Educ. 2014;39(3):183-199. doi:10.1007/s10755-013-9269-9
42. Chen SM, Sun PZ. Gender differences in the interaction effect of cumulative risk and problem-focused coping on depression among adult employees. PLoS One. 2019;14(12):e0226036. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0226036
43. Patel V, Kirkwood BR, Pednekar S, Weiss H, Mabey D. Risk factors for common mental disorders in women. Population-based longitudinal study. Br J Psychiatry. 2006;189:547-555. doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.106.022558
44. Wanberg CR, Csillag B, Douglass RP, Zhou L, Pollard MS. Socioeconomic Status and Well-Being during COVID-19: A Resource Based Examination. J Appl Psychol. 2020;105(12):1382-1396. doi:10.1037/apl0000831
45. Wyatt T, Oswalt SB. Comparing Mental Health Issues Among Undergraduate and Graduate Students. American Journal of Health Education. 2013;44(2):96-107. doi:10.1080/19325037.2013.764248
46. Kodish T, Lau AS, Gong-Guy E, et al. Enhancing Racial/Ethnic Equity in College Student Mental Health Through Innovative Screening and Treatment. Adm Policy Ment Health. 2022;49(2):267-282. doi:10.1007/s10488-021-01163-1
47. Thomas B. Exploring the impact of the achievement gap on shame and resilience in African American College Students. Electronic Theses and Dissertations. Published online August 7, 2021. https://scholarworks.sfasu.edu/etds/400
48. Golden SH. Coronavirus in African Americans and Other People of Color. Published February 17, 2022. Accessed June 1, 2022. https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/conditions-and-diseases/coronavirus/covid19-racial-disparities
49. Sanchez M, Lamont M, Zilberstein S. How American college students understand social resilience and navigate towards the future during covid and the movement for racial justice. Soc Sci Med. 2022;301:114890. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2022.114890
2. Bouchrika I. 50 Current Student Stress Statistics: 2023 Data, Analysis & Predictions. Research.com. Published October 26, 2020. Accessed February 23, 2023. https://research.com/education/student-stress-statistics
3. Karyotaki E, Cuijpers P, Albor Y, et al. Sources of Stress and Their Associations With Mental Disorders Among College Students: Results of the World Health Organization World Mental Health Surveys International College Student Initiative. Front Psychol. 2020;11:1759. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01759
4. Bashkin O, Shapovalov N, Faingersch E, Abramov L. Mental health among college students a year after COVID-19 outbreak in Israel: The association between wellbeing and anxiety. J Am Coll Health. Published online June 3, 2022:1-7. doi:10.1080/07448481.2022.2082844
5. Son C, Hegde S, Smith A, Wang X, Sasangohar F. Effects of COVID-19 on College Students’ Mental Health in the United States: Interview Survey Study. Journal of Medical Internet Research. 2020;22(9):e21279. doi:10.2196/21279
6. Hughes JW, Vander Horst A, Gibson GC, et al. Psychological distress of college students during the COVID-19 pandemic. Journal of American College Health. 2023;71(4):981-983. doi:10.1080/07448481.2021.1920953
7. Elkins R, McDade R. Student Perception of Online Learning Experiences Associated with COVID-19. RDHS. 2021;1(1). doi:10.53520/rdhs2021.10419
8. Versteeg M, Kappe R. Resilience and Higher Education Support as Protective Factors for Student Academic Stress and Depression During Covid-19 in the Netherlands. Frontiers in Public Health. 2021;9. Accessed February 23, 2023. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpubh.2021.737223
9. Zhan H, Zheng C, Zhang X, Yang M, Zhang L, Jia X. Chinese College Students’ Stress and Anxiety Levels Under COVID-19. Frontiers in Psychiatry. 2021;12. Accessed February 23, 2023. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyt.2021.615390
10. Pieh C, Budimir S, Probst T. The effect of age, gender, income, work, and physical activity on mental health during coronavirus disease (COVID-19) lockdown in Austria. Journal of Psychosomatic Research. 2020;136:110186. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychores.2020.110186
11. Laurene KR, Kodukula G, Lechner WV, Grega C, Lumpkin E, Kenne DR. Assessment of psychological distress as a function of positive psychological variables during the COVID-19 pandemic: A university longitudinal study. Journal of American College Health. 2022;0(0):1-7. doi:10.1080/07448481.2022.2032086
12. MacDonald HZ. Risk and resilience factors associated with college students’ psychological distress and PTSD symptoms during the COVID-19 pandemic. Journal of American College Health. 2023;0(0):1-15. doi:10.1080/07448481.2022.2155053
13. Harvard Unviersity. Resilience. Center on the Developing Child at Harvard University. Accessed February 23, 2023. https://developingchild.harvard.edu/science/key-concepts/resilience/
14. American Psychological Association. Building Your Resilience. https://www.apa.org. Accessed February 23, 2023. https://www.apa.org/topics/resilience
15. Harris MA, Brett CE, Starr JM, Deary IJ, McIntosh AM. Early-life predictors of resilience and related outcomes up to 66 years later in the 6-day sample of the 1947 Scottish mental survey. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol. 2016;51:659-668. doi:10.1007/s00127-016-1189-4
16. Bariola E, Lyons A, Leonard W, Pitts M, Badcock P, Couch M. Demographic and Psychosocial Factors Associated With Psychological Distress and Resilience Among Transgender Individuals. Am J Public Health. 2015;105(10):2108-2116. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2015.302763
17. Chen S, Bonanno GA. Psychological adjustment during the global outbreak of COVID-19: A resilience perspective. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy. 2020;12:S51-S54. doi:10.1037/tra0000685
18. J. Sambu L, Mhongo S. Age and Gender in Relation to Resilience After the Experience of Trauma among Internally Displaced Persons (IDPS) in Kiambaa Village, Eldoret East Sub-County, Kenya. JPBS. 2019;7(1). doi:10.15640/jpbs.v7n1a4
19. Williams DR. Stress and the Mental Health of Populations of Color: Advancing Our Understanding of Race-related Stressors. J Health Soc Behav. 2018;59(4):466-485. doi:10.1177/0022146518814251
20. Sliwa J. Higher stress among minority and low-income populations can lead to health disparities, says report. https://www.apa.org. Published January 8, 2018. Accessed February 7, 2023. https://www.apa.org/news/press/releases/2018/01/stress-minority-income
21. Turner F, Smith J. A Comparative Study on The Stress Levels of Black, White, Asian, and Latino Undergraduate Students. Journal of Research Initiatives. 2015;1(3). https://digitalcommons.uncfsu.edu/jri/vol1/iss3/6
22. Ijadi-Maghsoodi R, Marlotte L, Garcia E, et al. Adapting and Implementing a School-Based Resilience-Building Curriculum Among Low-Income Racial and Ethnic Minority Students. Contemp Sch Psychol. 2017;21(3):223-239.
23. Ickes MJ, Brown J, Reeves B, Zephyr PMD. Differences between Undergraduate and Graduate Students in Stress and Coping Strategies. Californian Journal of Health Promotion. 2015;13(1):13-25. doi:10.32398/cjhp.v13i1.1810
24. Chirikov I, Soria KM, Horgos B, Jones-White D. Undergraduate and Graduate Students’ Mental Health During the COVID-19 Pandemic. Published online August 17, 2020. Accessed February 23, 2023. https://escholarship.org/uc/item/80k5d5hw
25. Laor N, Wolmer L, Alon M, Siev J, Samuel E, Toren P. Risk and Protective Factors Mediating Psychological Symptoms and Ideological Commitment of Adolescents Facing Continuous Terrorism - Google Search. Accessed February 23, 2023. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16614550/
26. Hu J, Ye B, Yıldırım M, Yang Q. Perceived stress and life satisfaction during COVID-19 pandemic: the mediating role of social adaptation and the moderating role of emotional resilience. Psychology Health and Medicine. 2023;28:124-130. doi:10.1080/13548506.2022.2038385
27. Briere J, Runtz M. Trauma Symptom Checklist - 40 (TSC-40).; 1989.
28. Elliott DM, Briere J. Sexual abuse trauma among professional women: Validating the Trauma Symptom Checklist-40 (TSC-40). Child Abuse & Neglect. 1992;16(3):391-398. doi:10.1016/0145-2134(92)90048-V
29. Briere J. Psychometric review of the Trauma Symptom Checklist-40. In: Measurement of Stress, Trauma, and Adaptation. B.H. Stamm (Ed). Sidran Press; 1996.
30. Rizeq J, Flora D, McCann D. Construct Validation of the Trauma Symptom Checklist–40 Total and Subscale Scores. Assessment. 2018;27:107319111879104. doi:10.1177/1073191118791042
31. Smith BW, Dalen J, Wiggins K, Tooley E, Christopher P, Bernard J. The brief resilience scale: assessing the ability to bounce back. Int J Behav Med. 2008;15(3):194-200. doi:10.1080/10705500802222972
32. Smith BW, Epstein EM, Ortiz JA, Christopher PJ, Tooley EM. The foundations of resilience: What are the critical resources for bouncing back from stress? In: Resilience in Children, Adolescents, and Adults: Translating Research into Practice. The Springer series on human exceptionality. Springer Science + Business Media; 2013:167-187. doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-4939-3_13
33. Lai JCL, Yue X. Using the Brief Resilience Scale to Assess Chinese People’s Ability to Bounce Back From Stress. SAGE Open. 2014;4(4):2158244014554386. doi:10.1177/2158244014554386
34. IBM Corp. IBM SPSS Statistics for Windos, Versions 24.0. IIBM SPSS Statistics Grad Pack and Faculty Packs. Published December 23, 2022. Accessed February 23, 2023. https://www.ibm.com/products/spss-statistics-gradpack
35. Janney J. Gender Differences when Coping with Depression. Accessed March 26, 2023. http://libres.uncg.edu/ir/listing.aspx?id=22613
36. Kim YM, Cho SI. Socioeconomic status, work-life conflict, and mental health. Am J Ind Med. 2020;63(8):703-712. doi:10.1002/ajim.23118
37. Sipaviciene S. The Relationships between Psychological Well-Being, Emotions and Coping in COVID-19 Environment: The Gender Aspect for Postgraduate Students. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2022;19(16):10132. doi:10.3390/ijerph191610132
38. Cassidy S. Resilience Building in Students: The Role of Academic Self-Efficacy. Frontiers in Psychology. 2015;6. Accessed February 23, 2023. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01781
39. Wang L, Tao H, Bowers BJ, Brown R, Zhang Y. Influence of Social Support and Self-Efficacy on Resilience of Early Career Registered Nurses. West J Nurs Res. 2018;40(5):648-664. doi:10.1177/0193945916685712
40. Chang L, Feldman C. Female Students More Likely To Suffer From Stress, Depression. The Observer. Published June 20, 2011. Accessed May 10, 2022. https://fordhamobserver.com/2780/recent/news/female-students-more-likely-to-suffer-from-stress-depression/
41. Kogan M, Laursen SL. Assessing Long-Term Effects of Inquiry-Based Learning: A Case Study from College Mathematics. Innov High Educ. 2014;39(3):183-199. doi:10.1007/s10755-013-9269-9
42. Chen SM, Sun PZ. Gender differences in the interaction effect of cumulative risk and problem-focused coping on depression among adult employees. PLoS One. 2019;14(12):e0226036. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0226036
43. Patel V, Kirkwood BR, Pednekar S, Weiss H, Mabey D. Risk factors for common mental disorders in women. Population-based longitudinal study. Br J Psychiatry. 2006;189:547-555. doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.106.022558
44. Wanberg CR, Csillag B, Douglass RP, Zhou L, Pollard MS. Socioeconomic Status and Well-Being during COVID-19: A Resource Based Examination. J Appl Psychol. 2020;105(12):1382-1396. doi:10.1037/apl0000831
45. Wyatt T, Oswalt SB. Comparing Mental Health Issues Among Undergraduate and Graduate Students. American Journal of Health Education. 2013;44(2):96-107. doi:10.1080/19325037.2013.764248
46. Kodish T, Lau AS, Gong-Guy E, et al. Enhancing Racial/Ethnic Equity in College Student Mental Health Through Innovative Screening and Treatment. Adm Policy Ment Health. 2022;49(2):267-282. doi:10.1007/s10488-021-01163-1
47. Thomas B. Exploring the impact of the achievement gap on shame and resilience in African American College Students. Electronic Theses and Dissertations. Published online August 7, 2021. https://scholarworks.sfasu.edu/etds/400
48. Golden SH. Coronavirus in African Americans and Other People of Color. Published February 17, 2022. Accessed June 1, 2022. https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/conditions-and-diseases/coronavirus/covid19-racial-disparities
49. Sanchez M, Lamont M, Zilberstein S. How American college students understand social resilience and navigate towards the future during covid and the movement for racial justice. Soc Sci Med. 2022;301:114890. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2022.114890
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An Examination of the Impact of COVID-19 on Student Emotional Well-Being: Original Research. (2024). Research Directs in Psychology and Behavior, 4(1). https://doi.org/10.53520/rdpb2024.107114
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Copyright, 2024 by the authors. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.